Tacit knowledge隐性知识

Tacit knowledge or implicit knowledge is knowledge that is difficult to extract or articulate—as opposed to conceptualized, formalized, codified, or explicit knowledge—and is therefore more difficult to convey to others through verbalization or writing. Examples of this include individual wisdom, experience, insight, motor skill, and intuition.^[1] An example of "explicit" information that can be recorded, conveyed, and understood by the recipient is the knowledge that London is in the United Kingdom. Speaking a language, riding a bicycle, kneading dough, playing an instrument, or designing and operating sophisticated machinery, on the other hand, all require a variety of knowledge that is difficult or impossible to transfer to other people and is not always known "explicitly", even by skilled practitioners.隐性知识（Tacit knowledge）或隐含知识是指那些难以提取或表述的知识——与概念化、形式化、编码化或显性知识相对——因此更难通过语言或文字传达给他人。其例子包括个人智慧、经验、洞察力、运动技能和直觉。[1] “显性”信息的一个例子是“伦敦位于英国”，这类知识可以被记录、传达并被接收者理解。相比之下，说一门语言、骑自行车、揉面团、演奏乐器，或设计和操作精密机械，都需要各种难以甚至无法传达给他人的知识，即便对于熟练的从业者而言，这些知识也并非总是能被“明确”知晓。

Overview概述

Origin起源

The term tacit knowing is attributed to Michael Polanyi's Personal Knowledge (1958).^[2] In his later work, The Tacit Dimension (1966), Polanyi made the assertion that "we can know more than we can tell."^[3] He states not only that there is knowledge that cannot be adequately articulated by verbal means, but also that all knowledge is rooted in tacit knowledge. While this concept made most of its impact on philosophy of science, education and knowledge management—all fields involving humans—it was also, for Polanyi, a means to show humankind's evolutionary continuity with animals. Polanyi describes that many animals are creative, some even have mental representations, but can only possess tacit knowledge.^[4] This excludes humans, however, who developed the capability of articulation and therefore can transmit partially explicit knowledge. This relatively modest difference then turns into a big practical advantage, but there is no unexplained evolutionary gap.“隐性认识”（tacit knowing）这一术语归功于迈克尔·波兰尼（Michael Polanyi）的《个人知识》（1958年）一书。[2] 在后来的著作《隐性维度》（1966年）中，波兰尼断言：“我们所知的多于我们所能言说的。”[3] 他不仅指出存在无法通过语言手段充分表达的知识，还认为所有知识都植根于隐性知识。虽然这一概念主要对科学哲学、教育学和知识管理（所有涉及人类的领域）产生了影响，但对波兰尼而言，这也是展示人类与动物在进化上具有连续性的一种方式。波兰尼描述道，许多动物具有创造力，有些甚至拥有心理表征，但它们只能拥有隐性知识。[4] 然而，这不包括人类，人类发展出了表达能力，因此可以传递部分显性知识。这种相对微小的差异随后转化为巨大的实践优势，但其中并不存在无法解释的进化鸿沟。

Definition定义

Tacit knowledge can be defined as skills, ideas and experiences that are possessed by people but are not codified and may not necessarily be easily expressed.^[5] With tacit knowledge, people are not often aware of the knowledge they possess or how it can be valuable to others. Effective transfer of tacit knowledge generally requires extensive personal contact, regular interaction,^[6] and trust. This kind of knowledge can only be revealed through practice in a particular context and transmitted through social networks.^[7] To some extent it is "captured" when the knowledge holder joins a network or a community of practice.^[6]隐性知识可定义为人们所拥有的、未经编码且未必能轻易表达的技能、思想和经验。[5] 在拥有隐性知识时，人们往往意识不到自己所掌握的知识，也不清楚这些知识对他人有何价值。有效转移隐性知识通常需要广泛的个人接触、定期互动[6]以及信任。这种知识只能在特定情境的实践中显现，并通过社交网络传播。[7] 在某种程度上，当知识持有者加入某个网络或实践社区时，这些知识会被“捕获”。[6]

Some examples of daily activities and tacit knowledge are: riding a bike, playing the piano, driving a car, hitting a nail with a hammer,^[8] putting together pieces of a complex jigsaw puzzle, and interpreting a complex statistical equation.^[5]日常活动中隐性知识的一些例子包括：骑自行车、弹钢琴、开车、用锤子钉钉子[8]、拼装复杂的拼图，以及解读复杂的统计方程。[5]

In the field of knowledge management, the concept of tacit knowledge refers to knowledge that cannot be fully codified. An individual can acquire tacit knowledge without language. Apprentices, for example, work with their mentors and learn craftsmanship not only through language but also by observation, imitation, and practice.在知识管理领域，隐性知识的概念是指那些无法完全编码的知识。个人可以在没有语言的情况下习得隐性知识。例如，学徒与导师一起工作，不仅通过语言，还通过观察、模仿和实践来学习手艺。

The key to acquiring tacit knowledge is experience. Without some form of shared experience, it is extremely difficult for people to share each other's thinking processes.^[9]获取隐性知识的关键在于经验。如果没有某种形式的共同经验，人们很难分享彼此的思维过程。[9]

Terrain领域

Tacit knowledge can be divided according to the terrain. Terrains affect the process of changing tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge. Terrains are of three kinds:隐性知识可以根据领域进行划分。领域会影响将隐性知识转化为显性知识的过程。领域分为三种：

Relational tacit knowledge: Relational tacit knowledge could be made explicit, but not made explicit for reasons that touch on deep principles that have to do with either the nature or location of knowledge of the way humans are made. This knowledge refers to things we could describe in principle if someone put effort into describing them.关系性隐性知识：关系性隐性知识本可以显性化，但由于涉及与人类本性或知识位置相关的深层原则，因此未被显性化。这种知识指的是，如果有人投入精力去描述，原则上我们可以描述出来的事物。
Somatic tacit knowledge: Somatic tacit knowledge has to do with properties of individuals bodies and brains as physical things. It includes things our bodies can do but we cannot describe how, like riding a bike. In principle it is possible for it to be explicated as the outcome of research done by human scientists.躯体性隐性知识：躯体性隐性知识与个体身体和大脑作为物理实体的属性有关。它包括我们身体能做但我们无法描述如何做到的事情，例如骑自行车。原则上，这可以通过人类科学家的研究成果来阐明。
Collective tacit knowledge: Collective tacit knowledge is a kind of knowledge that we do not know how to make explicit and that we cannot envisage how to explicate. It is the domain of knowledge that is located in society, such as the rules for language - it has to do with the way society is constituted.^[10]集体性隐性知识：集体性隐性知识是一种我们不知道如何显性化，也无法设想如何阐明的知识。它是存在于社会中的知识领域，例如语言规则——它与社会的构成方式有关。[10]

Embodied knowledge具身知识

Tacit knowledge has been described as “know-how” as opposed to “know-what” (facts).^[11] This distinction between “know-how” and “know-what” is considered to date back to a 1945 paper by Gilbert Ryle given to the Aristotelian Society in London.^[12] In his paper, Ryle argues against the (intellectualist) position that all knowledge is knowledge of Propositions (“know-what”), and therefore the view that some knowledge can only be defined as “know-how”. Ryle's argument has, in some contexts, come to be called "anti-intellectualist". There are further distinctions such as "know-why" (science) or "know-who" (networking).^{[citation needed]}隐性知识被描述为“知其如何”（know-how），与“知其是什么”（know-what，即事实）相对。[11] 这种“知其如何”与“知其是什么”的区别被认为可以追溯到吉尔伯特·赖尔（Gilbert Ryle）1945年在伦敦亚里士多德学会发表的一篇论文。[12] 在该文中，赖尔反驳了（理智主义）认为所有知识都是命题知识（“知其是什么”）的观点，从而反驳了某些知识只能定义为“知其如何”的看法。在某些语境下，赖尔的论点被称为“反理智主义”。此外还有其他区分，如“知其为何”（科学）或“知其是谁”（人脉）。[需要引用]

Tacit knowledge involves learning and skill but not in a way that can be written down. On this account, knowing-how or “embodied knowledge” is characteristic of the expert, who acts, makes judgments, and so forth without explicitly reflecting on the principles or rules involved. The expert works without having a theory of his or her work; he or she just performs skillfully without deliberation or focused attention.^[7] Embodied knowledge represents a learned capability of a human body's nervous and endocrine systems.^[13]隐性知识涉及学习和技能，但不能以书面形式记录。据此，“知其如何”或“具身知识”是专家的特征，他们行动、做出判断等，而无需明确反思所涉及的原则或规则。专家在工作时无需拥有关于其工作的理论；他们只是在没有深思熟虑或专注注意的情况下熟练地执行任务。[7] 具身知识代表了人体神经系统和内分泌系统习得的能力。[13]

Differences from explicit knowledge与显性知识的区别

Although it is possible to distinguish conceptually between explicit and tacit knowledge, they are not separate and discrete in practice.^[9] The interaction between these two modes of knowing is vital for the creation of new knowledge.^[14]尽管在概念上可以将显性知识和隐性知识区分开来，但在实践中它们并非相互独立和离散的。[9] 这两种认识模式之间的互动对于创造新知识至关重要。[14]

Tacit knowledge can be distinguished from explicit knowledge in three major areas:^[2]隐性知识可以在三个主要方面与显性知识区分开来：[2]

Codifiability and mechanism of transferring knowledge: Explicit knowledge can be codified (for example, 'can you write it down' or 'put it into words' or 'draw a picture'), and easily transferred without the knowing subject. In contrast, tacit knowledge is intuitive and unarticulated knowledge that cannot be communicated, understood or used without the 'knowing subject'. Unlike the transfer of explicit knowledge, the transfer of tacit knowledge requires close interaction and the buildup of shared understanding and trust among them.可编码性与知识转移机制：显性知识可以被编码（例如，“你能写下来吗”、“用语言表达”或“画一张图”），并且可以在没有认知主体参与的情况下轻松转移。相比之下，隐性知识是直觉性的、未表述的知识，没有“认知主体”就无法交流、理解或使用。与显性知识的转移不同，隐性知识的转移需要密切的互动以及双方之间共同理解和信任的建立。
Main methods for the acquisition and accumulation: Explicit knowledge can be generated through logical deduction and acquired through practical experience in the relevant context. In contrast, tacit knowledge can only be acquired through practical experience in the relevant context.获取和积累的主要方法：显性知识可以通过逻辑推演生成，并通过相关情境下的实践经验获得。相比之下，隐性知识只能通过相关情境下的实践经验获得。
Potential of aggregation and modes of appropriation: Explicit knowledge can be aggregated at a single location, stored in objective forms, and appropriated without the participation of the knowing subject. Tacit knowledge, in contrast, is personal and contextual; it is distributed across knowing subjects, and cannot easily be aggregated. The realization of its full potential requires the close involvement and cooperation of the knowing subject.聚合潜力与占有方式：显性知识可以在单一地点聚合，以客观形式存储，并可以在没有认知主体参与的情况下被占有。相反，隐性知识是个人的和情境化的；它分布在各个认知主体之间，不容易聚合。要充分发挥其潜力，需要认知主体的密切参与和合作。

The process of transforming tacit knowledge into explicit or specifiable knowledge is known as codification, articulation, or specification. The tacit aspects of knowledge are those that cannot be codified, but can only be transmitted via training or gained through personal experience. There is a view against the distinction, where it is believed that all propositional knowledge (knowledge that) is ultimately reducible to practical knowledge (knowledge how).^[15]将隐性知识转化为显性或可指定知识的过程称为编码、表述或指定。知识的隐性方面是指那些无法编码，只能通过培训传播或通过个人经验获得的知识。有一种反对这种区分的观点认为，所有命题知识（知其然）最终都可以还原为实践知识（知其如何）。[15]

Nonaka–Takeuchi model野中郁次郎-竹内模型

Ikujiro Nonaka proposed a model of knowledge creation that explains how tacit knowledge can be converted to explicit knowledge, both of which can be converted into organisational knowledge.^[16] While introduced by Nonaka in 1990,^[17] the model was further developed by Hirotaka Takeuchi and is thus known as the Nonaka–Takeuchi model.^[16]^[18] In this model, tacit knowledge is presented variously as uncodifiable ("tacit aspects of knowledge are those that cannot be codified") and codifiable ("transforming tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge is known as codification"). This ambiguity is common in the knowledge management literature.野中郁次郎（Ikujiro Nonaka）提出了一个知识创造模型，解释了隐性知识如何转化为显性知识，以及两者如何转化为组织知识。[16] 该模型由野中于1990年引入[17]，后由竹内弘高（Hirotaka Takeuchi）进一步发展，因此被称为野中-竹内模型。[16][18] 在该模型中，隐性知识被以不同方式呈现为不可编码的（“知识的隐性方面是那些无法编码的”）和可编码的（“将隐性知识转化为显性知识的过程称为编码”）。这种模糊性在知识管理文献中很常见。

Assuming that knowledge is created through the interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge, the Nonaka–Takeuchi model postulates four different modes of knowledge conversion:^[16]假设知识是通过隐性知识与显性知识之间的互动而创造的，野中-竹内模型提出了四种不同的知识转化模式：[16]

from tacit knowledge to tacit knowledge, or socialization;从隐性知识到隐性知识，即社会化；
from tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge, or externalization;从隐性知识到显性知识，即外化；
from explicit knowledge to explicit knowledge, or combination; and从显性知识到显性知识，即组合；以及
from explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge, or internalization.从显性知识到隐性知识，即内化。

Nonaka's view may be contrasted with Polanyi's original view of "tacit knowing". Polanyi believed that while declarative knowledge may be needed for acquiring skills, it is unnecessary for using those skills once the novice becomes an expert. Indeed, it does seem to be the case that, as Polanyi argued, when people acquire a skill, they acquire a corresponding understanding that defies articulation.^[7]野中的观点可以与波兰尼最初的“隐性认识”观点进行对比。波兰尼认为，虽然陈述性知识可能对于获取技能是必要的，但一旦新手成为专家，使用这些技能时就不再需要陈述性知识。事实上，正如波兰尼所论证的那样，当人们习得一项技能时，他们会获得一种相应的、难以表述的理解，这似乎是事实。[7]

Diffusion model扩散模型

Tacit knowledge exchange in a company can be engineered as a diffusion process according to the Fourier's law of a heat transfer in physics. In the model proposed in ^[19], the surveys among employees can be used to construct a graph of possible knowledge flow - Tacit Knowledge Transfer Graph (TKTG). This allows one to arrange self-learning groups and identify the employees that are essential to the process distinguishing also: 公司内部的隐性知识交流可以根据物理学中傅里叶热传导定律设计为扩散过程。在[19]提出的模型中，员工调查可用于构建知识流向图——隐性知识转移图（TKTG）。这使得人们能够安排自学小组，并识别对该过程至关重要的员工，同时区分出：

sources - employees that offer a large amount of teaching;源头——提供大量教学的员工；
sinks - employees that need extended knowledge transfer;汇点——需要大量知识转移的员工；

This approach allows to reduce "quiet quitting" and manage knowledge transfer.这种方法有助于减少“安静离职”并管理知识转移。

Examples例子

One of the most convincing examples of tacit knowledge is facial recognition: one knows a person's face, and can recognize it among a thousand, indeed a million. Yet, people usually cannot tell how they recognize that face, so most of this cannot be put into words. When one sees a face, they are not conscious about their knowledge of the individual features (eye, nose, mouth), but rather see and recognize the face as a whole.^[20]隐性知识最令人信服的例子之一是面部识别：人们认识一张脸，并且能在成千上万、甚至上百万人中认出它。然而，人们通常无法说出自己是如何识别那张脸的，因此大部分过程无法用语言表达。当人们看到一张脸时，他们并未意识到自己对个人特征（眼睛、鼻子、嘴巴）的知识，而是将脸作为一个整体来观察和识别。[20]
Another example of tacit knowledge is the notion of language itself: it is not possible to learn a language just by being taught the rules of grammar—a native-speaker picks it up at a young age, almost entirely unaware of the formal grammar which they may be taught later.隐性知识的另一个例子是语言本身的概念：仅仅通过学习语法规则是不可能学会一门语言的——母语使用者在幼年时期就掌握了它，而对后来可能学习的正规语法几乎完全没有意识。
Other examples are how to ride a bike, how tight to make a bandage, or knowing whether a senior surgeon feels an intern may be ready to learn the intricacies of surgery; this can only be learned through personal experimentation.其他例子包括如何骑自行车、绷带要扎多紧，或者知道资深外科医生是否觉得实习生可以学习手术的复杂细节；这些只能通过个人实践来学习。
Harry M. Collins showed that Western laboratories long had difficulties in successfully replicating an experiment that a team led by Vladimir Braginsky at Moscow State University had been conducting for 20 years (the experiment was measuring the quality, Q, factors of sapphire). Western scientists became suspicious of the Russian results and it was only when Russian and Western scientists conducted the measurements collaboratively that the trust was reestablished. Collins argues that laboratory visits enhance the possibility for the transfer of tacit knowledge.^[21]^[22]哈里·M·柯林斯（Harry M. Collins）指出，西方实验室长期以来难以成功复制莫斯科国立大学弗拉基米尔·布拉金斯基（Vladimir Braginsky）领导的团队进行了20年的实验（该实验测量蓝宝石的品质因数Q）。西方科学家对俄罗斯的研究结果产生了怀疑，只有当俄罗斯和西方科学家合作进行测量时，信任才得以重建。柯林斯认为，实验室访问增加了隐性知识转移的可能性。[21][22]
The Bessemer steel process is another example: Henry Bessemer sold a patent for his advanced steelmaking process and was subsequently sued by the purchasers after they could not get it to work. In the end, Bessemer set up his own steel company because he knew how to do it, even though he could not convey it to his patent users.^[23]贝塞麦炼钢法是另一个例子：亨利·贝塞麦（Henry Bessemer）卖掉了他先进炼钢工艺的专利，但随后被买家起诉，因为他们无法使其运作。最终，贝塞麦创办了自己的钢铁公司，因为他知道如何操作，尽管他无法将其传达给专利购买者。[23]
When Matsushita (now Panasonic) started developing its automatic home bread-making machine in 1985, an early problem was how to mechanize the dough-kneading process, a process that takes a master baker years of practice to perfect. To learn this tacit knowledge, a member of the software development team, Ikuko Tanaka, decided to volunteer herself as an apprentice to the head baker of the Osaka International Hotel, who was reputed to produce the area's best bread. After a period of imitation and practice, one day she observed that the baker was not only stretching, but also twisting the dough in a particular fashion ("twisting stretch"), which turned out to be important in the success of his method. The Matsushita home bakery team drew together eleven members from completely different specializations and cultures: product planning, mechanical engineering, control systems, and software development. The "twisting stretch" motion was finally achieved by a prototype machine after a year of iterative experimentation by the engineers and team members working closely together, combining their explicit knowledge. For example, the engineers added ribs to the inside of the dough case in order to hold the dough better as it is being churned. Another team member suggested a method (later patented) to add yeast at a later stage in the process, thereby preventing the yeast from over-fermenting in high temperatures.^[16]^: 284当松下（现为Panasonic）于1985年开始开发自动家用面包机时，早期的难题是如何实现揉面过程的机械化，这是一个面包大师需要多年实践才能完善的过程。为了学习这种隐性知识，软件开发团队的一名成员田中郁子（Ikuko Tanaka）决定自愿去大阪国际酒店的首席面包师那里做学徒，该面包师以生产该地区最好的面包而闻名。经过一段时间的模仿和实践，有一天她观察到，面包师不仅在拉伸，还以一种特定的方式扭转面团（“扭转拉伸”），这被证明对他方法的成功至关重要。松下家用面包机团队召集了来自完全不同专业和文化背景的十一名成员：产品规划、机械工程、控制系统和软件开发。经过工程师和团队成员密切合作、结合各自的显性知识进行为期一年的迭代实验，“扭转拉伸”动作最终由原型机实现。例如，工程师在面团盒内部增加了肋条，以便在搅拌过程中更好地固定面团。另一名团队成员建议了一种方法（后来获得专利），即在过程的后期添加酵母，从而防止酵母在高温下过度发酵。[16]: 284

References参考文献

↑ "Tacit and Explicit Knowledge | Key Concepts in Information and Knowledge Management". www.tlu.ee. Retrieved 2024-12-10.“隐性与显性知识 | 信息与知识管理中的关键概念”。www.tlu.ee。检索于2024-12-10。
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↑ Polanyi, Michael. 1966. The Tacit Dimension. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 4.↑ 波兰尼，迈克尔。1966。隐性维度。芝加哥：芝加哥大学出版社。第4页。
↑ Héder, Mihály; Paksi, Daniel (2018). "Non-Human Knowledge According to Michael Polanyi". Tradition and Discovery: The Polanyi Society Periodical. 44 (1): 50–66. doi:10.5840/traddisc20184418.↑ Héder, Mihály; Paksi, Daniel (2018)。“根据迈克尔·波兰尼的非人类知识”。《传统与发现：波兰尼学会期刊》。44 (1): 50–66。doi:10.5840/traddisc20184418。
Jump up to: 1 2 Chugh, Ritesh (2015). "Do Australian Universities Encourage Tacit Knowledge Transfer?". Proceedings of the 7th International Joint Conference on Knowledge Discovery, Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management. pp. 128–135. doi:10.5220/0005585901280135. ISBN 978-989-758-158-8.跳转至：1 2 Chugh, Ritesh (2015)。“澳大利亚大学是否鼓励隐性知识转移？”。《第7届知识发现、知识工程和知识管理国际联合会议论文集》。第128–135页。doi:10.5220/0005585901280135。ISBN 978-989-758-158-8。
Jump up to: 1 2 Goffin, K.; Koners, U. (2011). "Tacit Knowledge, Lessons Learnt, and New Product Development". Journal of Product Innovation Management. 28 (2): 300–318. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5885.2010.00798.x.跳转至：1 2 Goffin, K.; Koners, U. (2011)。“隐性知识、经验教训与新产品开发”。《产品创新管理杂志》。28 (2): 300–318。doi:10.1111/j.1540-5885.2010.00798.x。
Jump up to: 1 2 3 Schmidt, Frank L.; Hunter, John E. (February 1993). "Tacit Knowledge, Practical Intelligence, General Mental Ability, and Job Knowledge". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2 (1): 8–9. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770456. S2CID 145203923.跳转至：1 2 3 Schmidt, Frank L.; Hunter, John E. (1993年2月)。“隐性知识、实践智能、一般智力和工作知识”。《心理科学当前方向》。2 (1): 8–9。doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770456。S2CID 145203923。
↑ Engel, P. J. H. (2008). "Tacit knowledge and Visual Expertise in Medical Diagnostic Reasoning: Implications for medical education". Medical Teacher. 30 (7): e184–e188. doi:10.1080/01421590802144260. PMID 18777417.↑ Engel, P. J. H. (2008)。“医学诊断推理中的隐性知识与视觉专长：对医学教育的启示”。《医学教师》。30 (7): e184–e188。doi:10.1080/01421590802144260。PMID 18777417。
Jump up to: 1 2 Lam, Alice (May 2000). "Tacit Knowledge, Organizational Learning and Societal Institutions: An Integrated Framework". Organization Studies. 21 (3): 487–513. doi:10.1177/0170840600213001. S2CID 146466393.跳转至：1 2 Lam, Alice (2000年5月)。“隐性知识、组织学习与社会制度：一个综合框架”。《组织研究》。21 (3): 487–513。doi:10.1177/0170840600213001。S2CID 146466393。
↑ Collins, Harry M. (2013). Tacit and explicit knowledge. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-00421-1. OCLC 871293266.↑ Collins, Harry M. (2013)。隐性与显性知识。芝加哥大学出版社。ISBN 978-0-226-00421-1。OCLC 871293266。
↑ "Tacit and Explicit Knowledge | Key Concepts in Information and Knowledge Management". www.tlu.ee. Retrieved 2021-04-15.↑ “隐性与显性知识 | 信息与知识管理中的关键概念”。www.tlu.ee。检索于2021-04-15。
↑ Ryle, Gilbert (1945). "Knowing How and Knowing That: The Presidential Address". Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. 46: 1–16. doi:10.1093/aristotelian/46.1.1. JSTOR 4544405.↑ Ryle, Gilbert (1945)。“知其如何与知其然：主席致辞”。《亚里士多德学会论文集》。46: 1–16。doi:10.1093/aristotelian/46.1.1。JSTOR 4544405。
↑ Sensky, Tom (2002). "Knowledge Management". Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 8 (5): 387–395. doi:10.1192/apt.8.5.387.↑ Sensky, Tom (2002)。“知识管理”。《精神病学治疗进展》。8 (5): 387–395。doi:10.1192/apt.8.5.387。
↑ Angioni, Giulio (2011). Fare, dire, sentire: l'identico e il diverso nelle culture [Doing, saying, feeling: the identical and the different in cultures] (in Italian). Il maestrale. pp. 26–99. ISBN 978-88-6429-020-1.↑ Angioni, Giulio (2011)。《做、说、感：文化中的相同与不同》（意大利语）。Il maestrale。第26–99页。ISBN 978-88-6429-020-1。
↑ Hetherington, S, (2011) How to Know: A Practicalist Conception of Knowledge, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 9780470658123.^{[page needed]}↑ Hetherington, S, (2011) 如何知：一种实践主义的知识观，Wiley-Blackwell，ISBN 9780470658123。[需要页码]
Jump up to: 1 2 3 4 Nonaka, Ikujiro, and Hirotaka Takeuchi. 1995. The Knowledge-creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509269-1. Available at the Internet Archive (registration required).跳转至：1 2 3 4 Nonaka, Ikujiro, and Hirotaka Takeuchi. 1995. 知识创造型公司：日本公司如何创造创新的动力。纽约：牛津大学出版社。ISBN 978-0-19-509269-1。可在互联网档案馆获取（需注册）。
↑ Nonaka, Ikujiro. 1990. Management of Knowledge Creation. Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shinbun-sha.↑ Nonaka, Ikujiro. 1990. 知识创造的管理。东京：日本经济新闻社。
↑ Xu, F. 2013. "The Formation and Development of Ikujiro Nonaka's Knowledge Creation Theory. Pp. 60-76 in Towards Organizational Knowledge: The Pioneering Work of Ikujiro Nonaka, edited by G. von Krogh, et al. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.↑ Xu, F. 2013. “野中郁次郎知识创造理论的形成与发展”。收录于 G. von Krogh 等人编辑的《迈向组织知识：野中郁次郎的开创性工作》，第60-76页。英国贝辛斯托克：帕尔格雷夫·麦克米伦。
↑ Kycia, Radosław Antoni; Niemczynowicz, Agnieszka; Buszko, Andrzej (2026-03-25). "Diffusion of tacit knowledge in a company: a mathematical model based on diffusion on graphs". Journal of Knowledge Management: 1–28. arXiv:2607.10919. doi:10.1108/JKM-10-2025-1431. ISSN 1367-3270.↑ Kycia, Radosław Antoni; Niemczynowicz, Agnieszka; Buszko, Andrzej (2026-03-25)。“公司内隐性知识的扩散：一种基于图上扩散的数学模型”。《知识管理杂志》：1–28。arXiv:2607.10919。doi:10.1108/JKM-10-2025-1431。ISSN 1367-3270。
↑ Polanyi, Michael. [1966] 1983. The Tacit Dimension. Gloucester: Doubleday & Company Inc. p. 4.↑ 波兰尼，迈克尔。[1966] 1983。隐性维度。格洛斯特：Doubleday & Company Inc. 第4页。
↑ Collins, H. M. (February 2001). "Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sapphire" (PDF). Social Studies of Science. 31 (1): 71–85. doi:10.1177/030631201031001004. S2CID 145429576.↑ Collins, H. M. (2001年2月)。“隐性知识、信任与蓝宝石的Q值”（PDF）。《科学社会研究》。31 (1): 71–85。doi:10.1177/030631201031001004。S2CID 145429576。
↑ Collins, Harry M. 2010. Tacit and Explicit Knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226113807.↑ Collins, Harry M. 2010. 隐性与显性知识。芝加哥：芝加哥大学出版社。ISBN 9780226113807。
↑ Gordon, James Edward. The new science of strong materials. Penguin Books. ISBN 9780691180984.↑ Gordon, James Edward. 强力材料的新科学。企鹅图书。ISBN 9780691180984。

23. Synaply.io | types of knowledge sharing Author "Ethan Moore" Posted April 2, 2025.23. Synaply.io | 知识共享类型作者“Ethan Moore” 发布于2025年4月2日。

v t e Knowledge management
General topics	Intellectual capital Knowledge economy Knowledge intensive services Knowledge intensive business services Knowledge organization (management) Knowledge-intensive company Knowledge sharing Ignorance management SECI model of knowledge dimensions
Electronic systems	Knowledge management software Business intelligence Enterprise content management Wiki software
Related	Knowledge Declarative Explicit Procedural Tacit Tribal Bus factor Collective intelligence Competence Design rationale Deskilling Institutional memory Knowledge market Knowledge society Knowledge spillover Knowledge transfer Learning organization Organizational learning Personal knowledge management Retraining Transfer of learning Transferable skill Transferable skills analysis Phrases I know that I know nothing Knowledge is power There are unknown unknowns
People	Knowledge worker Chief knowledge officer Virtual team Communities of innovation Community of practice Community of interest
Journals	Journal of Knowledge Management Knowledge Management Research & Practice

Authority control databases
International	GND
National	Czech Republic